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-----------------------------------------
The HAProxy OpenTracing filter (OT)
Version 1.0
( Last update: 2020-12-10 )
-----------------------------------------
Author : Miroslav Zagorac
Contact : mzagorac at haproxy dot com
SUMMARY
--------
0. Terms
1. Introduction
2. Build instructions
3. Basic concepts in OpenTracing
4. OT configuration
4.1. OT scope
4.2. "ot-tracer" section
4.3. "ot-scope" section
4.4. "ot-group" section
5. Examples
5.1 Benchmarking results
6. OT CLI
7. Known bugs and limitations
0. Terms
---------
* OT: The HAProxy OpenTracing filter
OT is the HAProxy filter that allows you to send data to distributed
tracing systems via the OpenTracing API.
1. Introduction
----------------
Nowadays there is a growing need to divide a process into microservices and
there is a problem of monitoring the work of the same process. One way to
solve this problem is to use distributed tracing service in a central location,
the so-called tracer.
OT is a feature introduced in HAProxy 2.4. This filter enables communication
via the OpenTracing API with OpenTracing compatible servers (tracers).
Currently, tracers that support this API include Datadog, Jaeger, LightStep
and Zipkin.
The OT filter was primarily tested with the Jaeger tracer, while configurations
for both Datadog and Zipkin tracers were also set in the test directory.
The OT filter is a standard HAProxy filter, so what applies to others also
applies to this one (of course, by that I mean what is described in the
documentation, more precisely in the doc/internals/filters.txt file).
The OT filter activation is done explicitly by specifying it in the HAProxy
configuration. If this is not done, the OT filter in no way participates
in the work of HAProxy.
As for the impact on HAProxy speed, this is documented with several tests
located in the test directory, and the result is found in the README-speed-*
files. In short, the speed of operation depends on the way it is used and
the complexity of the configuration, from an almost immeasurable impact to
a significant deceleration (5x and more). I think that in some normal use
the speed of HAProxy with the filter on will be quite satisfactory with a
slowdown of less than 4% (provided that no more than 10% of requests are
sent to the tracer, which is determined by the keyword 'rate-limit').
The OT filter allows intensive use of ACLs, which can be defined anywhere in
the configuration. Thus, it is possible to use the filter only for those
connections that are of interest to us.
2. Build instructions
----------------------
OT is the HAProxy filter and as such is compiled together with HAProxy.
To communicate with some OpenTracing compatible tracer, the OT filter uses the
OpenTracing C Wrapper library (which again uses the OpenTracing CPP library).
This means that we must have both libraries installed on the system on which
we want to compile or use HAProxy.
Instructions for compiling and installing both required libraries can be
found at https://github.com/haproxytech/opentracing-c-wrapper .
Also, to use the OT filter when running HAProxy we need to have an OpenTracing
plugin for the tracer we want to use. We will return to this later, in
section 5.
The OT filter can be more easily compiled using the pkg-config tool, if we
have the OpenTracing C Wrapper library installed so that it contains pkg-config
files (which have the .pc extension). If the pkg-config tool cannot be used,
then the path to the directory where the include files and libraries are
located can be explicitly specified.
Below are examples of the two ways to compile HAProxy with the OT filter, the
first using the pkg-congfig tool and the second explicitly specifying the path
to the OpenTracing C Wrapper include and library.
Note: prompt '%' indicates that the command is executed under a unprivileged
user, while prompt '#' indicates that the command is executed under the
root user.
Example of compiling HAProxy using the pkg-congfig tool (assuming the
OpenTracing C Wrapper library is installed in the /opt directory):
% PKG_CONFIG_PATH=/opt/lib/pkgconfig make USE_OT=1 TARGET=linux-glibc
The OT filter can also be compiled in debug mode as follows:
% PKG_CONFIG_PATH=/opt/lib/pkgconfig make USE_OT=1 OT_DEBUG=1 TARGET=linux-glibc
HAProxy compilation example explicitly specifying path to the OpenTracing C
Wrapper include and library:
% make USE_OT=1 OT_INC=/opt/include OT_LIB=/opt/lib TARGET=linux-glibc
In case we want to use debug mode, then it looks like this:
% make USE_OT=1 OT_DEBUG=1 OT_INC=/opt/include OT_LIB=/opt/lib TARGET=linux-glibc
If the library we want to use is not installed on a unix system, then a locally
installed library can be used (say, which is compiled and installed in the user
home directory). In this case instead of /opt/include and /opt/lib the
equivalent paths to the local installation should be specified. Of course,
in that case the pkg-config tool can also be used if we have a complete
installation (with .pc files).
last but not least, if the pkg-config tool is not used when compiling, then
HAProxy executable may not be able to find the OpenTracing C Wrapper library
at startup. This can be solved in several ways, for example using the
LD_LIBRARY_PATH environment variable which should be set to the path where the
library is located before starting the HAProxy.
% LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/opt/lib /path-to/haproxy ...
Another way is to add RUNPATH to HAProxy executable that contains the path to
the library in question.
% make USE_OT=1 OT_RUNPATH=1 OT_INC=/opt/include OT_LIB=/opt/lib TARGET=linux-glibc
After HAProxy is compiled, we can check if the OT filter is enabled:
% ./haproxy -vv | grep opentracing
--- command output ----------
[ OT] opentracing
--- command output ----------
3. Basic concepts in OpenTracing
---------------------------------
Basic concepts of OpenTracing can be read on the OpenTracing documentation
website https://opentracing.io/docs/overview/.
Here we will list only the most important elements of distributed tracing and
these are 'trace', 'span' and 'span context'. Trace is a description of the
complete transaction we want to record in the tracing system. A span is an
operation that represents a unit of work that is recorded in a tracing system.
Span context is a group of information related to a particular span that is
passed on to the system (from service to service). Using this context, we can
add new spans to already open trace (or supplement data in already open spans).
An individual span may contain one or more tags, logs and baggage items.
The tag is a key-value element that is valid for the entire span. Log is a
key-value element that allows you to write some data at a certain time, it
can be used for debugging. A baggage item is a key-value data pair that can
be used for the duration of an entire trace, from the moment it is added to
the span.
4. OT configuration
--------------------
In order for the OT filter to be used, it must be included in the HAProxy
configuration, in the proxy section (frontend / listen / backend):
frontend ot-test
...
filter opentracing [id <id>] config <file>
...
If no filter id is specified, 'ot-filter' is used as default. The 'config'
parameter must be specified and it contains the path of the file used to
configure the OT filter.
4.1 OT scope
-------------
If the filter id is defined for the OT filter, then the OT scope with
the same name should be defined in the configuration file. In the same
configuration file we can have several defined OT scopes.
Each OT scope must have a defined (only one) "ot-tracer" section that is
used to configure the operation of the OT filter and define the used groups
and scopes.
OT scope starts with the id of the filter specified in square brackets and
ends with the end of the file or when a new OT scope is defined.
For example, this defines two OT scopes in the same configuration file:
[my-first-ot-filter]
ot-tracer tracer1
...
ot-group group1
...
ot-scope scope1
...
[my-second-ot-filter]
...
4.2. "ot-tracer" section
-------------------------
Only one "ot-tracer" section must be defined for each OT scope.
There are several keywords that must be defined for the OT filter to work.
These are 'config' which defines the configuration file for the OpenTracing
API, and 'plugin' which defines the OpenTracing plugin used.
Through optional keywords can be defined ACLs, logging, rate limit, and groups
and scopes that define the tracing model.
ot-tracer <name>
A new OT with the name <name> is created.
Arguments :
name - the name of the tracer section
The following keywords are supported in this section:
- mandatory keywords:
- config
- plugin
- optional keywords:
- acl
- debug-level
- groups
- [no] log
- [no] option disabled
- [no] option dontlog-normal
- [no] option hard-errors
- rate-limit
- scopes
acl <aclname> <criterion> [flags] [operator] <value> ...
Declare or complete an access list.
To configure and use the ACL, see section 7 of the HAProxy Configuration
Manual.
config <file>
'config' is one of the two mandatory keywords associated with the OT tracer
configuration. This keyword sets the path of the configuration file for the
OpenTracing tracer plugin. To set the contents of this configuration file,
it is best to look at the documentation related to the OpenTracing tracer we
want to use.
Arguments :
file - the path of the configuration file
debug-level <value>
This keyword sets the value of the debug level related to the display of
debug messages in the OT filter. The 'debug-level' value is binary, ie
a single value bit enables or disables the display of the corresponding
debug message that uses that bit. The default value is set via the
FLT_OT_DEBUG_LEVEL macro in the include/config.h file. Debug level value
is used only if the OT filter is compiled with the debug mode enabled,
otherwise it is ignored.
Arguments :
value - binary value ranging from 0 to 255 (8 bits)
groups <name> ...
A list of "ot-group" groups used for the currently defined tracer is declared.
Several groups can be specified in one line.
Arguments :
name - the name of the OT group
log global
log <addr> [len <len>] [format <fmt>] <facility> [<level> [<minlevel>]]
no log
Enable per-instance logging of events and traffic.
To configure and use the logging system, see section 4.2 of the HAProxy
Configuration Manual.
option disabled
no option disabled
Keyword which turns the operation of the OT filter on or off. By default
the filter is on.
option dontlog-normal
no option dontlog-normal
Enable or disable logging of normal, successful processing. By default,
this option is disabled. For this option to be considered, logging must
be turned on.
See also: 'log' keyword description.
option hard-errors
no option hard-errors
During the operation of the filter, some errors may occur, caused by
incorrect configuration of the tracer or some error related to the operation
of HAProxy. By default, such an error will not interrupt the filter
operation for the stream in which the error occurred. If the 'hard-error'
option is enabled, the operation error prohibits all further processing of
events and groups in the stream in which the error occurred.
plugin <file>
'plugin' is one of the two mandatory keywords associated with the OT tracer
configuration. This keyword sets the path of the OpenTracing tracer plugin.
Arguments :
file - the name of the plugin used
rate-limit <value>
This option allows limiting the use of the OT filter, ie it can be influenced
whether the OT filter is activated for a stream or not. Determining whether
or not a filter is activated depends on the value of this option that is
compared to a randomly selected value when attaching the filter to the stream.
By default, the value of this option is set to 100.0, ie the OT filter is
activated for each stream.
Arguments :
value - floating point value ranging from 0.0 to 100.0
scopes <name> ...
This keyword declares a list of "ot-scope" definitions used for the currently
defined tracer. Multiple scopes can be specified in the same line.
Arguments :
name - the name of the OT scope
4.3. "ot-scope" section
------------------------
Stream processing begins with filter attachment, then continues with the
processing of a number of defined events and groups, and ends with filter
detachment. The "ot-scope" section is used to define actions related to
individual events. However, this section may be part of a group, so the
event does not have to be part of the definition.
ot-scope <name>
Creates a new OT scope definition named <name>.
Arguments :
name - the name of the OT scope
The following keywords are supported in this section:
- acl
- baggage
- event
- extract
- finish
- inject
- log
- span
- tag
acl <aclname> <criterion> [flags] [operator] <value> ...
Declare or complete an access list.
To configure and use the ACL, see section 7 of the HAProxy Configuration
Manual.
baggage <name> <sample> ...
Baggage items allow the propagation of data between spans, ie allow the
assignment of metadata that is propagated to future children spans.
This data is formatted in the style of key-value pairs and is part of
the context that can be transferred between processes that are part of
a server architecture.
This kewyord allows setting the baggage for the currently active span. The
data type is always a string, ie any sample type is converted to a string.
The exception is a binary value that is not supported by the OT filter.
See the 'tag' keyword description for the data type conversion table.
Arguments :
name - key part of a data pair
sample - sample expression (value part of a data pair), at least one
sample must be present
event <name> [{ if | unless } <condition>]
Set the event that triggers the 'ot-scope' to which it is assigned.
Optionally, it can be followed by an ACL-based condition, in which case it
will only be evaluated if the condition is true.
ACL-based conditions are executed in the context of a stream that processes
the client and server connections. To configure and use the ACL, see
section 7 of the HAProxy Configuration Manual.
Arguments :
name - the event name
condition - a standard ACL-based condition
Supported events are (the table gives the names of the events in the OT
filter and the corresponding equivalent in the SPOE filter):
-------------------------------------|------------------------------
the OT filter | the SPOE filter
-------------------------------------|------------------------------
on-client-session-start | on-client-session
on-frontend-tcp-request | on-frontend-tcp-request
on-http-wait-request | -
on-http-body-request | -
on-frontend-http-request | on-frontend-http-request
on-switching-rules-request | -
on-backend-tcp-request | on-backend-tcp-request
on-backend-http-request | on-backend-http-request
on-process-server-rules-request | -
on-http-process-request | -
on-tcp-rdp-cookie-request | -
on-process-sticking-rules-request | -
on-client-session-end | -
on-server-unavailable | -
-------------------------------------|------------------------------
on-server-session-start | on-server-session
on-tcp-response | on-tcp-response
on-http-wait-response | -
on-process-store-rules-response | -
on-http-response | on-http-response
on-server-session-end | -
-------------------------------------|------------------------------
extract <name-prefix> [use-vars | use-headers]
For a more detailed description of the propagation process of the span
context, see the description of the keyword 'inject'. Only the process
of extracting data from the carrier is described here.
Arguments :
name-prefix - data name prefix (ie key element prefix)
use-vars - data is extracted from HAProxy variables
use-headers - data is extracted from the HTTP header
Below is an example of using HAProxy variables to transfer span context data:
--- test/ctx/ot.cfg --------------------------------------------------------
...
ot-scope client_session_start_2
extract "ot_ctx_1" use-vars
span "Client session" child-of "ot_ctx_1"
...
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
finish <name> ...
Closing a particular span or span context. Instead of the name of the span,
there are several specially predefined names with which we can finish certain
groups of spans. So it can be used as the name '*req*' for all open spans
related to the request channel, '*res*' for all open spans related to the
response channel and '*' for all open spans regardless of which channel they
are related to. Several spans and/or span contexts can be specified in one
line.
Arguments :
name - the name of the span or context context
inject <name-prefix> [use-vars] [use-headers]
In OpenTracing, the transfer of data related to the tracing process between
microservices that are part of a larger service is done through the
propagation of the span context. The basic operations that allow us to
access and transfer this data are 'inject' and 'extract'.
'inject' allows us to extract span context so that the obtained data can
be forwarded to another process (microservice) via the selected carrier.
'inject' in the name actually means inject data into carrier. Carrier is
an interface here (ie a data structure) that allows us to transfer tracing
state from one process to another.
Data transfer can take place via one of two selected storage methods, the
first is by adding data to the HTTP header and the second is by using HAProxy
variables. Only data transfer via HTTP header can be used to transfer data
to another process (ie microservice). All data is organized in the form of
key-value data pairs.
No matter which data transfer method you use, we need to specify a prefix
for the key element. All alphanumerics (lowercase only) and underline
character can be used to construct the data name prefix. Uppercase letters
can actually be used, but they will be converted to lowercase when creating
the prefix.
Arguments :
name-prefix - data name prefix (ie key element prefix)
use-vars - HAProxy variables are used to store and transfer data
use-headers - HTTP headers are used to store and transfer data
Below is an example of using HTTP headers and variables, and how this is
reflected in the internal data of the HAProxy process.
--- test/ctx/ot.cfg --------------------------------------------------------
...
ot-scope client_session_start_1
span "HAProxy session" root
inject "ot_ctx_1" use-headers use-vars
...
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
- generated HAProxy variable (key -> value):
txn.ot_ctx_1.uberDtraceDid -> 8f1a05a3518d2283:8f1a05a3518d2283:0:1
- generated HTTP header (key: value):
ot_ctx_1-uber-trace-id: 8f1a05a3518d2283:8f1a05a3518d2283:0:1
Because HAProxy does not allow the '-' character in the variable name (which
is automatically generated by the OpenTracing API and on which we have no
influence), it is converted to the letter 'D'. We can see that there is no
such conversion in the name of the HTTP header because the '-' sign is allowed
there. Due to this conversion, initially all uppercase letters are converted
to lowercase because otherwise we would not be able to distinguish whether
the disputed sign '-' is used or not.
Thus created HTTP headers and variables are deleted when executing the
'finish' keyword or when detaching the stream from the filter.
log <name> <sample> ...
This kewyord allows setting the log for the currently active span. The
data type is always a string, ie any sample type is converted to a string.
The exception is a binary value that is not supported by the OT filter.
See the 'tag' keyword description for the data type conversion table.
Arguments :
name - key part of a data pair
sample - sample expression (value part of a data pair), at least one
sample must be present
span <name> [<reference>]
Creating a new span (or referencing an already opened one). If a new span
is created, it can be a child of the referenced span, follow from the
referenced span, or be root 'span'. In case we did not specify a reference
to the previously created span, the new span will become the root span.
We need to pay attention to the fact that in one trace there can be only
one root span. In case we have specified a non-existent span as a reference,
a new span will not be created.
Arguments :
name - the name of the span being created or referenced (operation
name)
reference - span or span context to which the created span is referenced
tag <name> <sample> ...
This kewyord allows setting a tag for the currently active span. The first
argument is the name of the tag (tag ID) and the second its value. A value
can consist of one or more data. If the value is only one data, then the
type of that data depends on the type of the HAProxy sample. If the value
contains more data, then the data type is string. The data conversion table
is below:
HAProxy sample data type | the OpenTracing data type
--------------------------+---------------------------
NULL | NULL
BOOL | BOOL
INT32 | INT64
UINT32 | UINT64
INT64 | INT64
UINT64 | UINT64
IPV4 | STRING
IPV6 | STRING
STRING | STRING
BINARY | UNSUPPORTED
--------------------------+---------------------------
Arguments :
name - key part of a data pair
sample - sample expression (value part of a data pair), at least one
sample must be present
4.4. "ot-group" section
------------------------
This section allows us to define a group of OT scopes, that is not activated
via an event but is triggered from TCP or HTTP rules. More precisely, these
are the following rules: 'tcp-request', 'tcp-response', 'http-request',
'http-response' and 'http-after-response'. These rules can be defined in the
HAProxy configuration file.
ot-group <name>
Creates a new OT group definition named <name>.
Arguments :
name - the name of the OT group
The following keywords are supported in this section:
- scopes
scopes <name> ...
'ot-scope' sections that are part of the specified group are defined. If
the mentioned 'ot-scope' sections are used only in some OT group, they do
not have to have defined events. Several 'ot-scope' sections can be
specified in one line.
Arguments :
name - the name of the 'ot-scope' section
5. Examples
------------
Several examples of the OT filter configuration can be found in the test
directory. A brief description of the prepared configurations follows:
cmp - the configuration very similar to that of the spoa-opentracing project.
It was made to compare the speed of the OT filter with the
implementation of distributed tracing via spoa-opentracing application.
sa - the configuration in which all possible events are used.
ctx - the configuration is very similar to the previous one, with the only
difference that the spans are opened using the span context as a span
reference.
fe be - a slightly more complicated example of the OT filter configuration
that uses two cascaded HAProxy services. The span context between
HAProxy processes is transmitted via the HTTP header.
empty - the empty configuration in which the OT filter is initialized but
no event is triggered. It is not very usable, except to check the
behavior of the OT filter in the case of a similar configuration.
In order to be able to collect data (and view results via the web interface)
we need to install some of the supported tracers. We will use the Jaeger
tracer as an example. Installation instructions can be found on the website
https://www.jaegertracing.io/download/. For the impatient, here we will list
how the image to test the operation of the tracer system can be installed
without much reading of the documentation.
# docker pull jaegertracing/all-in-one:latest
# docker run -d --name jaeger -e COLLECTOR_ZIPKIN_HTTP_PORT=9411 \
-p 5775:5775/udp -p 6831:6831/udp -p 6832:6832/udp -p 5778:5778 \
-p 16686:16686 -p 14268:14268 -p 9411:9411 jaegertracing/all-in-one:latest
The last command will also initialize and run the Jaeger container. If we
want to use that container later, it can be started and stopped in the classic
way, using the 'docker container start/stop' commands.
In order to be able to use any of the configurations from the test directory,
we must also have a tracer plugin in that directory (all examples use the
Jaeger tracer plugin). The simplest way is to download the tracer plugin
using the already prepared shell script get-opentracing-plugins.sh.
The script accepts one argument, the directory in which the download is made.
If run without an argument, the script downloads all plugins to the current
directory.
% ./get-opentracing-plugins.sh
After that, we can run one of the pre-configured configurations using the
provided script run-xxx.sh (where xxx is the name of the configuration being
tested). For example:
% ./run-sa.sh
The script will create a new log file each time it is run (because part of the
log file name is the start time of the script).
Eh, someone will surely notice that all test configurations use the Jaeger
tracing plugin that cannot be downloaded using the get-opentracing-plugins.sh
script. Unfortunately, the latest precompiled version that can be downloaded
is 0.4.2, for newer ones only the source code can be found. Version 0.4.2 has
a bug that can cause the operation of the OT filter to get stuck, so it is
better not to use this version. Here is the procedure by which we can compile
a newer version of the plugin (in our example it is 0.5.0).
Important note: the GCC version must be at least 4.9 or later.
% wget https://github.com/jaegertracing/jaeger-client-cpp/archive/v0.5.0.tar.gz
% tar xf v0.5.0.tar.gz
% cd jaeger-client-cpp-0.5.0
% mkdir build
% cd build
% cmake -DCMAKE_INSTALL_PREFIX=/opt -DJAEGERTRACING_PLUGIN=ON -DHUNTER_CONFIGURATION_TYPES=Release -DHUNTER_BUILD_SHARED_LIBS=OFF ..
% make
After the plugin is compiled, it will be in the current directory. The name
of the plugin is libjaegertracing_plugin.so.
5.1. Benchmarking results
--------------------------
To check the operation of the OT filter, several different test configurations
have been made which are located in the test directory. The test results of
the same configurations (with the names README-speed-xxx, where xxx is the name
of the configuration being tested) are also in the directory of the same name.
All tests were performed on the same debian 9.13 system, CPU i7-4770, 32 GB RAM.
For the purpose of testing, the thttpd web server on port 8000 was used.
Testing was done with the wrk utility running via run-xxx.sh scripts; that is,
via the test-speed.sh script that is run as follows:
% ./test-speed.sh all
The above mentioned thttpd web server is run from that script and it should be
noted that we need to have the same installed on the system (or change the path
to the thttpd server in that script if it is installed elsewhere).
Each test is performed several times over a period of 5 minutes per individual
test. The only difference when running the tests for the same configuration
was in changing the 'rate-limit' parameter (and the 'option disabled' option),
which is set to the following values: 100.0, 50.0, 10.0, 2.5 and 0.0 percent.
Then a test is performed with the OT filter active but disabled for request
processing ('option disabled' is included in the ot.cfg configuration). In
the last test, the OT filter is not used at all, ie it is not active and does
not affect the operation of HAProxy in any way.
6. OT CLI
----------
Via the HAProxy CLI interface we can find out the current status of the OT
filter and change several of its settings.
All supported CLI commands can be found in the following way, using the
socat utility with the assumption that the HAProxy CLI socket path is set
to /tmp/haproxy.sock (of course, instead of socat, nc or other utility can
be used with a change in arguments when running the same):
% echo "help" | socat - UNIX-CONNECT:/tmp/haproxy.sock | grep flt-ot
--- command output ----------
flt-ot debug [level] : set the OT filter debug level (default: get current debug level)
flt-ot disable : disable the OT filter
flt-ot enable : enable the OT filter
flt-ot soft-errors : turning off hard-errors mode
flt-ot hard-errors : enabling hard-errors mode
flt-ot logging [state] : set logging state (default: get current logging state)
flt-ot rate [value] : set the rate limit (default: get current rate value)
flt-ot status : show the OT filter status
--- command output ----------
'flt-ot debug' can only be used in case the OT filter is compiled with the
debug mode enabled.
7. Known bugs and limitations
------------------------------
The name of the span context definition can contain only letters, numbers and
characters '_' and '-'. Also, all uppercase letters in the name are converted
to lowercase. The character '-' is converted internally to the 'D' character,
and since a HAProxy variable is generated from that name, this should be taken
into account if we want to use it somewhere in the HAProxy configuration.
The above mentioned span context is used in the 'inject' and 'extract' keywords.
Let's look a little at the example test/fe-be (configurations are in the
test/fe and test/be directories, 'fe' is here the abbreviation for frontend
and 'be' for backend). In case we have the 'rate-limit' set to a value less
than 100.0, then distributed tracing will not be started with each new HTTP
request. It also means that the span context will not be delivered (via the
HTTP header) to the backend HAProxy process. The 'rate-limit' on the backend
HAProxy must be set to 100.0, but because the frontend HAProxy does not send
a span context every time, all such cases will cause an error to be reported
on the backend server. Therefore, the 'hard-errors' option must be set on the
backend server, so that processing on that stream is stopped as soon as the
first error occurs. Such cases will slow down the backend server's response
a bit (in the example in question it is about 3%).